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Câest en juillet 1968 que lâAmerican Indian Movement (AIM) fut fondĂ© Ă Minneapolis et devint lâexpression du mouvement Red Power. CâĂ©tait trois mois aprĂšs les soulĂšvements qui secouĂšrent le pays Ă la suite de lâassassinat de Martin Luther King.
Petit rappel historique :
Le 29 dĂ©cembre 1890, le 7e rĂ©giment de cavalerie des Ătats-Unis a tuĂ© entre 250 et 300 Lakotas Ă Wounded Knee, dans le Dakota du Sud. Ce massacre est souvent citĂ© comme marquant la fin des guerres indiennes et le dĂ©but dâune politique dâassimilation totale qui durera jusque dans les annĂ©es 1970.

Wounded Knee fut une atrocitĂ© historique de plus, mais lâadoption de la loi Dawes de 1887 et sa politique dĂ©sastreuse dâassimilation forcĂ©e le furent encore plus. Cette loi rĂ©duit systĂ©matiquement les terres dĂ©tenues par les autochtones et tente de les intĂ©grer au capitalisme amĂ©ricain en annulant toute notion de propriĂ©tĂ© collective et en « donnant » Ă peine 160 acres Ă chaque chef de famille indien.
Lâune des dispositions les plus importantes de la loi Ă©tait que les terres excĂ©dentaires Ă©taient mises Ă la disposition des colons, des chemins de fer, des sociĂ©tĂ©s et des parcs nationaux et il en restait Ă©videmment beaucoup.
Câest Ă cette Ă©poque que la politique frontaliĂšre a sĂ©parĂ© les enfants immigrĂ©s de leurs familles. De nombreux enfants autochtones ont Ă©tĂ© arrachĂ©s Ă leur foyer et envoyĂ©s dans des pensionnats qui visaient Ă dĂ©barrasser les enfants de leur langue et de leur culture et Ă leur apprendre un mĂ©tier pour en faire les rouages utiles de lâĂ©conomie amĂ©ricaine.
En 1934, Franklin Delano Roosevelt a votĂ© la loi de rĂ©organisation qui redonnait un certain niveau de souverainetĂ© aux Indiens en « crĂ©ant » officiellement un gouvernement Ă©lu par la tribu. Les constitutions tribales devaient ĂȘtre impĂ©rativement approuvĂ©es par le gouvernement fĂ©dĂ©ral et ne pouvaient contenir aucune forme de gouvernance traditionnelle. Vous imaginez Ă quel point les choses Ă©taient compliquĂ©es et peu faisables.

Comment a débuté le Red Power :
Dans les annĂ©es 1950, les AmĂ©rindiens vivaient soit dans des rĂ©serves indiennes extrĂȘmement pauvres, soit dans des centres urbains souvent appelĂ©s « ghettos rouges ».
Lâintense pauvretĂ© des rĂ©serves a obligĂ© de plus en plus dâindigĂšnes Ă essayer de trouver un travail en ville pour survivre.
La politique de « rĂ©siliation » visait une assimilation totale et permettait au gouvernement amĂ©ricain dâĂ©liminer tout type de revendication territoriale ou de droits issus de traitĂ©s. Ceci devait aider Ă mettre enfin un terme au « problĂšme indien ».
Les responsables politiques ont alors sĂ©lectionnĂ© les nations amĂ©rindiennes quâils considĂ©raient comme les plus « avancĂ©es » pour Ă©liminer leurs rĂ©serves et toute relation fĂ©dĂ©rale avec Washington.

La nation Menominee, dans le nord du Wisconsin, fut lâune des premiĂšres tribus visĂ©es par la politique de « termination ». Son statut fĂ©dĂ©ral fut supprimĂ©, avec des consĂ©quences Ă©conomiques et sociales dĂ©sastreuses, avant dâĂȘtre restaurĂ© en 1973.
Le but Ă©tait dâĂ©tendre cet essai fructueux pour le gouvernement Ă toutes les autres nations autochtones des Ătats-Unis.
Pour que les AmĂ©rindiens quittent la rĂ©serve et que les terres puissent leur ĂȘtre reprises, des tickets de bus aller simple Ă©taient donnĂ©s aux autochtones avec la promesse de bons emplois et dâune vie facile. Ceci entraĂźna un afflux de personnes dans les grandes villes. Faut-il prĂ©ciser quâaucun travail ne leur fut fourni, et encore moins une vie facile, les Blancs continuant Ă les voir comme des sauvages.
On peut comparer ceci Ă la grande migration des Afro-AmĂ©ricains du Sud vers le Nord il y a 100 ans, sauf que dans ce cas, il sâagissait dâune politique gouvernementale officielle et que les AmĂ©rindiens Ă©taient chassĂ©s de leurs propres terres.
Ces populations Ă©taient sans cesse confrontĂ©es au profilage racial de la part de la police et constituaient lâun des groupes les plus reprĂ©sentĂ©s Ă tort en prison. En 1968, au moment de la fondation de lâAIM, les Indiens reprĂ©sentaient environ 10 % de la population de Minneapolis et 70 % de la population carcĂ©rale de la ville. Ils Ă©taient persĂ©cutĂ©s et bon nombre furent enfermĂ©s pour avoir juste « mal » parlĂ© Ă un Blanc et parfois mĂȘme sans raison.

Certains Indiens des centres urbains ont commencĂ© Ă rĂ©clamer les droits en matiĂšre de soins de santĂ© qui leur avaient Ă©tĂ© garantis dans les traitĂ©s antĂ©rieurs. Ă lâĂ©poque, il Ă©tait impossible de trouver un service de santĂ© qui acceptait les Indiens en dehors des rĂ©serves.
La naissance du mouvement indien américain :
Alors que de plus en plus dâIndiens se radicalisent Ă cause du chĂŽmage et de la violence policiĂšre, câest en juillet 1968 Ă Minneapolis quâEddie Benton Banai, Clyde Bellecourt, George Mitchell et Dennis Banks fondent lâAmerican Indian Movement.

Lâobjectif initial du groupe Ă©tait de lutter contre la violence policiĂšre. LâAIM a collectĂ© des fonds pour Ă©quiper les voitures de radios, de camĂ©ras et de magnĂ©tophones afin de pouvoir suivre les arrestations effectuĂ©es par le service de police. Lorsque la patrouille AIM entendait la police envoyĂ©e dans certains bars ou Ă certains coins de rue, les agents AIM observaient attentivement leurs actions. LâAIM fournissait aussi des avocats pour les personnes arrĂȘtĂ©es.
MĂȘme si lâorganisation se dĂ©veloppe Ă un rythme rapide, elle est confrontĂ©e au problĂšme de la dĂ©connexion des populations et au fait de ne pas avoir de racines dans les rĂ©serves.
La situation a radicalement changĂ© en fĂ©vrier 1972, aprĂšs le meurtre dâun membre de la tribu Lakota Ă Gordon, dans le Nebraska. Comme dans de nombreuses villes frontaliĂšres de la rĂ©serve, les relations entre Indiens et Blancs Ă©taient extrĂȘmement tendues. Il nâĂ©tait pas rare dâentendre les gens dire que le seul bon Indien Ă©tait un Indien mort.
Câest dans cette atmosphĂšre que Raymond Yellow Thunder fut battu Ă mort par deux individus sans quâaucune sanction ne suive. LâAIM a exigĂ© que justice soit faite. Cette rĂ©action inattendue des Indiens a obligĂ© les autoritĂ©s Ă condamner les coupables pour meurtre, mĂȘme si la condamnation fut faible.
Ce succĂšs dâAIM a probablement montrĂ© au gouvernement une capacitĂ© Ă rassembler des personnes intentionnellement sĂ©parĂ©es : les autochtones des villes et ceux des rĂ©serves.
Lâoccupation de Wounded Knee :
Lâaction la plus mĂ©morable de lâAIM a Ă©tĂ© lâoccupation durant 71 jours de Wounded Knee au dĂ©but de 1973.
Plus de 200 Sioux oglalas armĂ©s et accompagnĂ©s de militants de lâAmerican Indian Movement occupent la localitĂ© de Wounded Knee, au cĆur de la rĂ©serve indienne de Pine Ridge, en protestation contre la corruption du prĂ©sident du conseil tribal Dicky Wilson et la brutalitĂ© de sa milice paramilitaire privĂ©e Ă lâencontre de la population.

En quelques heures, plus de 2 000 agents du FBI, des policiers fĂ©dĂ©raux et des reprĂ©sentants du Bureau des affaires indiennes cernent la localitĂ© et organisent un blocus avec des vĂ©hicules blindĂ©s et de nombreuses armes. La prĂ©sence massive de mĂ©dias internationaux et le caractĂšre symbolique de Wounded Knee dans lâimaginaire collectif rendent lâassaut impossible pour lâadministration amĂ©ricaine qui nâose pas lancer lâassaut. Pour rappel, en 1890 eut lieu le massacre du chef sioux Big Foot et de sa tribu composĂ©e de 370 membres. Les os dâun autre chef sioux, Crazy Horse, seraient enterrĂ©s Ă Wounded Knee.

Le siĂšge dure 71 jours. Le 8 mai, les militants se rendent.
Répression et déclin :
AprĂšs lâoccupation de Wounded Knee, la force de lâAIM a largement diminuĂ© Ă cause de la rĂ©pression du gouvernement.
Le FBI a dâabord infiltrĂ© lâAIM via Douglass Durham, directeur de la sĂ©curitĂ© du groupe. Plus aucune action nâĂ©tait secrĂšte.
Une autre tactique du gouvernement amĂ©ricain contre lâAIM consistait Ă obliger les personnes arrĂȘtĂ©es Ă Wounded Knee Ă subir de longs et trĂšs coĂ»teux procĂšs qui mettraient lâorganisation en faillite. Dans tout le pays, les membres de lâAIM Ă©taient inculpĂ©s de charges parfois mineures pour lesquelles ils devaient ĂȘtre reprĂ©sentĂ©s au tribunal. Le seul objectif Ă©tait de mettre lâorganisation en faillite.
Enfin, le gouvernement accusa honteusement Leonard Peltier du meurtre de deux agents du FBI lors dâune fusillade Ă Pine Ridge en 1975. Le FBI finit par admettre plus tard quâil ne savait pas qui avait tuĂ© les agents, mais quâil fallait absolument mettre Peltier derriĂšre les barreaux. Peltier devait ĂȘtre libĂ©rĂ© sur parole en 2009, mais Barack Obama a refusĂ© de le gracier ou de commuer sa peine. En janvier 2025, Joe Biden a commuĂ© sa peine afin quâil en purge le reste en dĂ©tention Ă domicile. Leonard Peltier a quittĂ© la prison le 18 fĂ©vrier 2025.
Cependant, lâobjectif de lâAIM est loin dâĂȘtre atteint. Les autochtones sont toujours pris pour cible par la police. Selon le Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, les AmĂ©rindiens ne reprĂ©sentent que 0,8 % de la population, mais sont 1,9 % des personnes tuĂ©es par la police. Les droits issus de traitĂ©s restent toujours un combat important.
Les revendications du mouvement Red Power ne sâancrent pas uniquement dans les luttes modernes, mais plongent aussi leurs racines dans des traditions spirituelles et sociales anciennes, comme celles que lâon retrouve dans les grandes civilisations mĂ©soamĂ©ricaines. Ă ce titre, mon article Teotihuacan, la citĂ© sacrĂ©e des dieux, incarne la puissance symbolique et religieuse qui a traversĂ© les siĂšcles.
It makes my heart sick when I remember all the good words and the broken promises.
Chief Joseph
Red Power: do you know this movement?
It was in July 1968 that the American Indian Movement (AIM) was founded in Minneapolis and became an expression of the Red Power movement. This was three months after the uprisings that shook the country following the assassination of Martin Luther King.
A brief historical reminder:
On 29 December 1890, the 7th Cavalry Regiment of the United States killed between 250 and 300 Lakota people at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. This massacre is often cited as marking the end of the Indian Wars and the beginning of a policy of total assimilation that would continue into the 1970s.

Wounded Knee was yet another historical atrocity, but the adoption of the Dawes Act of 1887 and its disastrous policy of forced assimilation were even more far-reaching. The Act systematically reduced Native-held lands and attempted to integrate Native Americans into American capitalism by abolishing the concept of collective ownership and âgivingâ barely 160 acres to each Native American head of household.
One of the Act’s most important provisions was that surplus lands were made available to settlers, railways, corporations and national parks â and there was, of course, a great deal of land left over.
It was during this period that frontier policy separated immigrant children from their families. Many Native children were taken from their homes and sent to boarding schools designed to strip them of their language and culture and teach them a trade so that they could become useful cogs in the American economy.
In 1934, Franklin Delano Roosevelt passed the Reorganisation Act, which restored a certain level of sovereignty to Native Americans by officially âcreatingâ a government elected by the tribe. Tribal constitutions had to be approved by the federal government and could contain no form of traditional governance. You can imagine how complicated and impractical this made things.

How Red Power began:
In the 1950s, Native Americans lived either on extremely poor reservations or in urban centres often referred to as âred ghettosâ.
The intense poverty on reservations forced increasing numbers of Indigenous people to try to find work in cities in order to survive.
The policy of âterminationâ aimed at total assimilation and allowed the US government to eliminate any kind of territorial claim or treaty rights. This was supposed to help finally put an end to the âIndian problemâ.
Politicians then selected the Native American nations they considered the most âadvancedâ in order to eliminate their reservations and any federal relationship with Washington.

The Menominee Nation, in northern Wisconsin, was one of the first tribes targeted by the policy of termination. Its federal status was abolished, with disastrous economic and social consequences, before being restored in 1973.
The aim was to extend this experiment, considered successful by the government, to all other Native nations in the United States.
To encourage Native Americans to leave the reservation so that their lands could be taken back, Indigenous people were given one-way bus tickets with promises of good jobs and an easy life. This led to an influx of people into the major cities. Needless to say, no jobs were provided, let alone an easy life, while white people continued to regard them as savages.
This can be compared with the Great Migration of African Americans from the South to the North 100 years ago, except that in this case it was an official government policy and Native Americans were being driven from their own lands.
These populations were constantly confronted with racial profiling by the police and were among the groups most disproportionately represented in prison. In 1968, when AIM was founded, Native Americans represented around 10% of the population of Minneapolis and 70% of the city’s prison population. They were persecuted and many were imprisoned simply for speaking âbadlyâ to a white person, and sometimes for no reason at all.

Some Native Americans in urban centres began demanding the healthcare rights that had been guaranteed to them in earlier treaties. At the time, it was impossible to find a health service that would accept Native Americans outside reservations.
The birth of the American Indian Movement:
As increasing numbers of Native Americans became radicalised by unemployment and police violence, Eddie Benton Banai, Clyde Bellecourt, George Mitchell and Dennis Banks founded the American Indian Movement in Minneapolis in July 1968.

The group’s initial objective was to fight police violence. AIM raised funds to equip cars with radios, cameras and tape recorders so that arrests carried out by the police could be monitored. When the AIM patrol heard that police had been dispatched to certain bars or street corners, AIM members closely observed their actions. AIM also provided lawyers for those who were arrested.
Although the organisation grew rapidly, it faced the problem of disconnected populations and a lack of roots on the reservations.
The situation changed radically in February 1972, after the murder of a Lakota tribal member in Gordon, Nebraska. As in many towns bordering reservations, relations between Native Americans and white people were extremely tense. It was not unusual to hear people say that the only good Indian was a dead Indian.
It was in this atmosphere that Raymond Yellow Thunder was beaten to death by two individuals without any punishment following. AIM demanded justice. This unexpected reaction from Native Americans forced the authorities to convict those responsible of murder, even though the sentence was light.
This AIM success probably showed the government its ability to bring together people who had been deliberately separated: urban Native Americans and those living on reservations.
The occupation of Wounded Knee:
AIM’s most memorable action was the 71-day occupation of Wounded Knee in early 1973.
More than 200 armed Oglala Sioux, accompanied by activists from the American Indian Movement, occupied Wounded Knee, in the heart of the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, in protest against the corruption of tribal council president Dicky Wilson and the brutality of his private paramilitary militia towards the population.

Within a few hours, more than 2,000 FBI agents, federal police officers and representatives of the Bureau of Indian Affairs surrounded the settlement and organised a blockade with armoured vehicles and numerous weapons. The massive presence of international media and the symbolic importance of Wounded Knee in the collective imagination made an assault impossible for the US administration, which did not dare launch one. As a reminder, the massacre of Sioux chief Big Foot and his band of 370 people took place there in 1890. The bones of another Sioux chief, Crazy Horse, are said to be buried at Wounded Knee.

The siege lasted 71 days. On 8 May, the activists surrendered.
Repression and decline:
After the occupation of Wounded Knee, AIM’s strength declined considerably as a result of government repression.
The FBI first infiltrated AIM through Douglass Durham, the group’s security director. No action was secret any longer.
Another tactic used by the US government against AIM was to force those arrested at Wounded Knee to endure long and extremely costly trials that would bankrupt the organisation. Across the country, AIM members were charged with sometimes minor offences for which they had to be represented in court. The sole objective was to bankrupt the organisation.
Finally, the government shamefully accused Leonard Peltier of murdering two FBI agents during a shootout at Pine Ridge in 1975. The FBI later admitted that it did not know who had killed the agents, but that Peltier absolutely had to be put behind bars. Peltier was due to be released on parole in 2009, but Barack Obama refused to pardon him or commute his sentence. In January 2025, Joe Biden commuted his sentence so that he could serve the remainder under home confinement. Leonard Peltier left prison on 18 February 2025.
However, AIM’s objective is far from being achieved. Indigenous people are still targeted by the police. According to the Center on Juvenile and Criminal Justice, Native Americans represent only 0.8% of the population but account for 1.9% of people killed by police. Treaty rights remain an important struggle.
The demands of the Red Power movement are rooted not only in modern struggles, but also in ancient spiritual and social traditions, such as those found in the great Mesoamerican civilisations. In this respect, my article Teotihuacan, the sacred city of the gods, embodies the symbolic and religious power that has endured through the centuries.
It makes my heart sick when I remember all the good words and the broken promises.
Chief Joseph
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